How to Use 



Ur~ m Wood-Working Tools 

lot? 




D.C.Heath&Co. 



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m 




Class JZIZ/'i'^: 

Book 



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/8fA:> 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



^ 



A 



MANUAL. 



A 



When a man teaches his son no trade, it is as if he taught 
him highway robbery.'''' — Talmud. 




V V W'** 



BOSTON, U.S.A., 
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. 
1S96. 



I 






COPYRIGHTED BY 

HENRY S. GREW, Treasurer. 
1881. 






Pkess of Rockwell and Chukchi 
39 Arch St., Boston. 



r/'^^HI 



INTRODUCTION. 



THIS book aims to give, in fourteen chapters, directions 
and exercises for the use of the Wood-working Tools. 
Like other text-books of its kind, it will best accomplish its 
purpose in the hands of an intelligent and practical teacher, 
who may use it for his own guidance in conducting a class. 
At the same time, it is so simply written and so amply illus- 
trated, that any bright boy wtII find the book alone a great 
help in his endeavors to learn the right way of using common 
tools. 

The book has been prepared for the Industrial School 
Association of Boston. That Society, having conducted 
successful industrial schools during the winters of 1876-7 
and 1877-8, at 23 Churefe'- Street, concluded to offer its 
apparatus and the results of *its experiments to the city, in 
Ihe hope that such schools would be maintained at the 
l)ublic expense. Meantime, the Society appointed a com- 
mittee to embody the valuable experience gained in its 
schools, in a Manual of Instruction. 

This Manual, with the accompanying account of its prep- 
aration, is their report. 

The Society hopes that the public will share its satis- 
faction in the work of its committee. The lessons are few 
in number, and simple in character. They aim only to give 
an elementary training in the manipulations common to all 
wood-working trades. But it is not chiefly in the interest 
of these or of any other trades that this course is offered to 
the public. Lessons like these, given at the same time 



IV INTRODUCTION. 

with the studies now pursued in our grammar schools, would 
relieve the weariness of purely mental exercises, and give a, 
new zest to their pursuit. A single ward-room, like the one 
used by the school iu Church Street, in any city, for the si^ 
months from December to May, during which time it usuall} 
lies idle, with very little expense beyond the original plan! 
and a moderate salary to the teacher, would meet all the 
needs of three or four of the largest grammar scliools for boys. 
Three such supplementary schools, if used in turn, would 
amply satisfy all the rightful claims of industrial education of 
this kind upon the school system of such a city as Boston. 
At so small an outlay of attention and money might the 
native aptitude of American youth for manual skill be turned 
into useful channels. In so simple a way might the needed 
check be given to that exclusive tendency towards clerical 
rather than industrial pursuits which the present school course 
undoubtedly promotes. 

GEORGE LEONARD CHANEY, 

President of the 
Indiistrial School Association. 



Applicants for further information may address Miss S. C. 
Paine, Secretary, Brimmer Street, Boston; and Rev. Geo. 
L. Chaney, 7 Treraont Place, Boston, Mass. 



REPORT. 



THE committee charged with the duty of preparing for 
the association a Manual of Wood-working Tools beg 
to present their final Report. 

This committee at first attempted to prepare a course of 
lessons which, though sufficiently simple to meet the needs 
of such schools as the association desired to encourage, 
should cover the whole ground to be gone over, in de- 
tail, the association authorizing the employment of such 
clerical and other assistance as might be necessary. 

In its present form, the work, though somewhat less ex- 
tensive than was at first proposed, is believed to be suffi- 
ciently full for the youngest pupils who are competent to 
understand the principles involved, and have strength enough 
to perform the work. At the same tim.e pains has been 
taken, while systematizing the whole scheme, to leave the 
teacher free to adopt such alternative exercises as may 
promise best to develop the active intelligence of the stu- 
dent. To this end, while a number of the exercises, suffi- 
cient thoroughly to exemplify the method employed, have 
been worked out in detail, many of the lessons have been 
given only in outline, so far as the text is concerned, though 
with full illustration, and in some merely the subjects are 
indicated. 

A series of lessons was prepared in the winter of 1877-78 
by Mr. Channing Whitaker and Mr. Raymond D. Chapell. 
They had the advantage of the valuable advice and sugges- 
tions of Mr. Alonzo W. Folsom, who critically examined the 



VI REPORT. 

work in its various stages of preparation. Each brought a 
special experience to bear upon the undertaking. Holt- 
zapffel's well-known treatise * proved itself to be an inval- 
uable aid. ■ 

The first draft of these lessons was printed or papyro- 
graphed, and used by Mr. Chapell during the winter of 
1877-78, while he was acting as teacher both in the school 
maintained by the association in Church Street, and in the 
School of Mechanic Arts of the Massachusetts Institute of 
Technology. Many valuable results of the experience de- 
rived from their use were embodied in a revised copy. A 
broadside containing the first lesson was printed for general 
distribution as an illustration of the work which the associa- 
tion had undertaken, and attracted much attention. It was 
afterwards printed in " The Polytechnic Review," of Phila- 
delphia, and in the Report of the Massachusetts State Board 
of Education for 1876-77. During that winter a collateral 
experience was gained in other similar schools of which 
Mr. Whitaker had the direction. The lessons also were 
placed in the hands of Mr. C. H. Dow, who taught a school 
of this kind in Gloucester, Mass., in 1878-79, from whom 
valuable suggestions were afterward received. 

During the fall and winter of 1878, Mr. George H. Chap- 
man, a graduate of the Institute of Technology, devoted him- 
self with zeal and efficiency to the writing out of new lessons 
based upon the instructions which he received of Mr. George 
Smith, Instructor in the School of Mechanic Arts. He re- 
peated in his own workshop the exercises of the school, and 

* The preparation of a series of lessons, suited to the use of amateurs 
and others, was undertaken by Mr. Charles Holtzapffel, of London, as early 
as 1835, but he finally abandoned the scheme after years of labor, on account 
of difficulties of classification and arrangement. He used the material that 
he had accumulated as the basis of his admirable scientific treatise upon 
" Turning and Mechanical Manipulation," one-half of which was published 
in 1850. 



REPORT. Vll 

wrote out day by day a statement of the exact line of pro- 
cedure which it was found necessary to adopt in order to 
perform them most satisfactorily. He had shown himself to 
be peculiarly fitted for making such investigations as these, 
and although in frail health his interest did not abate with his 
strength, but he continued his labors almost up to the mo- 
ment of his untimely death, which occurred in January, 1879. 
During the same season, Mr. R. L. Bridgman took an 
active part in the work, and aided in making a digest and 
revision of much of the manuscript and printed matter that 
had thus far been brought together. 

It now became evident that so explicit and complete a 
work as was at first contemplated would occupy too much 
time in preparation, and, when done, might be too large and 
too costly to meet the ends that the association had chiefly 
in view. It was therefore decided to put into form for the 
press such a portion of the manuscript as would form a text- 
book sufficiently full for the guidance of classes, but not 
entering so thoroughly into matters of detail as was at first 
intended. The text in its present form is the result of that 
decision. 

The illustrations in which the figure of the workman oc- 
curs have been prepared by Mr, D. T. Kendrick. They are 
intended to make plain to the pupils all of those minute de- 
tails of position which the pupils need to understand without 
at the same time burdening their attention with extremely- 
detailed instructions in print. It was found to be necessary 
to pose the model for the artist in order that he might under- 
stand clearly what he was to represent, and it was only by the 
intervention of photography that it became practicable to 
secure the advantages to be derived from adopting this course. 
Mr. Frank Rowell, a member of the committee, and the 
superintendent of the different schools that have been con- 
ducted by the society, allowed his photographic gallery to 



VIU REPORT. 

be used for this purpose, and both Mr. Whitaker and Mr. 
Folsom gave their personal attention to the accurate posing 
of the model in the most illustrative position for his work, 
and to placing the camera in the best position from which to 
view the model. The engravings which accompany the text 
were obtained from Mr. Kendrick's drawings, the outlines 
of which were traced from the photographs. The other en- 
gravings are reproductions of perspective drawings by Mr. 
A. J. Boyden, architect, a graduate of the Institute, who in 
this and in other ways rendered valuable assistance. Mr. 
Henry W. Burton and Mr. Albert Snow furnished suggestions 
that are embodied in the work. Messrs. A. J. Wilkinson & 
Co allowed themselves to be frequently troubled with ques- 
tions concerning wood-working tools, and gave free access to 
their large collection for the purpose of forwarding the work 
of the association. 

The illustrations, arranged in proper order, with a manu- 
script text, were now placed in the hands of Mr. J. Phillips 
White, who taught several classes m Cambridge during the 
winter of 1879-80. Mr. White took great interest in the 
work, and throughout a considerable portion of the term 
made weekly reports to the committee of the practical 
workings of the scheme, and wrote out notes of each lesson 
day by day. His experience seems to show that an intelH- 
gent class, in the hands of a competent instructor, can go 
through this manual in twenty-five or thirty lessons, of two 
hours each. 

Fully to explain the fundamental principles of the science 
of wood-working, and to embody all the valuable results of 
the experience which has been gained, would make a large 
volume, an undertaking that the association has virtually be- 
gun, but which, as has been said, their committee have had 
neither the leisure nor the means to prosecute. Although 
the present volume is thus but a fragment of the whole, it is 



REPORT. IX 

nevertheless believed to be sufficiently complete for the 
objects they have immediately in view, and to be adapted 
to the needs of classes of young persons who, with the tools 
in their hands, shall study under the leadership of intelligent 
and discreet persons, who are at the same time skilful teach- 
ers and expert workmen. 

The suggestion that the society should prepare a manual 
to aid in promoting the efficiency of the instruction given, 
and that the plan of the manual should be substantially that 
which has been partially carried out in this text, originated 
with Mr. Whitaker, who, subject to the approval of the 
committee, directed and supervised the work of those em- 
ployed by the society. Throughout the undertaking he has 
had the benefit of the aid and advice of the other members 
of the committee. Many meetings, both of the committee 
and of the society, have been held, at which questions that 
relate to the text-book have been discussed. Members of 
the society have in these meetings made suggestions which 
have been of service to the committee in the prosecution of 
the work. Finally, the text in its present form has been 
critically read and approved by Mr. Folsom. 

For the committee, 

WILLIAM R. WARE, 

Ckairman, 



CONTENTS. 



• 

Page. 
CHAPTER I. Striking 7 

II, Splitting .*..,.,.. 14 

III. Cutting 22 

IV. Planing , . . 27 

V. Sharpening ....... 33 

VI. Adjusting the Plane-iron .... 39 

VII. Marking and Lining 44 

VIII. Scoring and Paring 58 

IX. Sawing 63 

X. Reducing Warped to Plane Surfaces . . 69 

XI. Producing Plane Surfaces that are Square 

WITH each other 72 

XII. Boring . . . . . . . -75 

XIII. Joinery .77 

XIV. Finishing .,..,.,. 102 




Fig. I, a. 

POSITION BEFORE BEGINNING TO SWING THE TOOL. 



Wood-Working Tools. - How to IJse 
Them. 

CHAPTER I. 
STRIKING. 



T 



HERE is a large class of stiiking tools. It include?^ 
the hammer, the mallet, the beetle, the hatchet, the 
axe, the adze, and all other tools which act by blows. Three 
movements are practised in striking with the lighter tools. 
They are the wrist, the elbow, and the shoulder movements. 

In each of the first three exercises, strike a number of 
blows with the proper tool upon a soft-wood board, or block, 
or upon a pad ; repeating the exercise until the nature of 
each movement is well understood, and fixed in the memory. 

The wrist movement is suited to the use of tack- 
hammers, and other light tools with which taps are struck. 

Exercise I, i. — The wrist movement. Grasp the handle 
of a light tool as far from its head as is convenient, with the 
thumb extended along the handle, and the fingers closed 
upon it. Let the face of the tool rest upon the object to be 
struck, as in Fig. I, a. Strike light taps, moving the hand 
and the tool as if they were one stiff piece, swinging about 
the wrist-joint as about a fixed centre. (See Fig. I, ^.) 
Vary the height to which the head of the tool is lifted by 
varying the extent of the motion at the wrist-joint, and ob- 
serve that such variation will affect the force of the blow. 



8 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 



Do not at a;ty time during the movencient relax the grasp of 
the hand, nor permit any motion of the forearm. If, at first, 
it be too difficult to prevent the forearm from moving, sup- 
port it near the elbow. It may rest for support against the 
body, or upon a block on the bench. 




Fig. I, b. 

THE WRIST MOVEMENT. 



The elbow movement is suited to the use of tools of 

light and medium weight, with which blows of medium in- 
tensity are struck. 

Ex. I, 2. — The elbow movemeitt. Hold the tool, and 
move the wrist, as in the wrist movement. In addition, moiie 
the forearm freely about the elbow-joint. (See Fig. I, c.) 



STRIKING. 9 

Do not permit any movement of the arm above the elbow. 
Vary the extent of the movement at both the wrist and the 
elbow-jomts, thus modifying the force of the blows. If, 
at first, it be difficult to prevent a movement of the arm 
above the elbow, support the arm against the body. 




Fig. I, f. 

THE ELBOW MOVEMENT. 



The shoulder movement is suited to the use of the 
heavier tools with which somewhat heavy blows are struck 
by one hand. 

Ex. I, 3. — The shoulder movement. Hold the tool, and 
move the wrist and the elbow, as in the elbow movement. 
In addition, move the arm freely about the shoulder-joint 



lO 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 



(See Fig. I, d.) Do not permit any movement of the body, 
except the slight movement at the ankle-joints, that pre- 
vents the body from being thrown out of balance by the 
motion of the hammer. 




Fig. I, a. 

THE SHOULDER MOVEMENT. 

The striking tools may be classed in two principal 
subdivisions. Those of \\\q first subdivision do not act directly 
upon the wood ; but they strike a second tool or instrument 
which does act upon it. The hammer, the mallet, and the 
beetle are examples. Those of the second subdivision do 
act directly upon the wood. The hatchet, the axe, and the 
adze are examples. They are not simply striking tools ; they 



STRIKING. 1 1 

may be splitting, cutting, or piercing tools as well. We are 
concerned with them, in this chapter, only as striking tools. 
It generally requires more skill to swing with sufficient pre- 
cision the tools of the second subdivision than those of the 
first. 

Ex. I, 4. — To strike with precision. Mark a number of 
points upon the wider flat surfaces, or side-faces, as they may 
be called, of a piece of pine board, and strike them with as 
great precision as possible. Before beginning to swing the 
tool, place it upon the body to be struck, in the exact posi- 
tion that it should have when the blow occurs. (See Fig. I, <2.) 
Notice the positions of the head and handle of the tool, 
and of the hand, arm, and body of the person. Endeavor 




& G) & & o G €> 

^ e> e> c> c? 
@ o o o 




Fig. I, e. 

THE EFFECTS OF SQUARE BLOWS. 



to bring the tool and all parts of the body into exactly the 
same positions, at the instant when the blow occurs, as they 
had when the tool was placed in position. A skilful person 
can tell, by the feeling in the different parts of his body, 
whether they have all come back pretty nearly to their orig- 
inal positions or not. He can also control the tool while it 
is swinging, so that all shall thus come back pretty nearly 
to their original positions. Strike a number of blows by each 
of the three movements named before : and decide with 
which it is most easy, and with which it is most difficult, to 
strike with precision. 

Ex. I, 5, — To strike square blows. Lay a piece of pine 



12 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



board upon a firm support. Sink the face of the hammer 
many times into the surface of the wood. Try to have the 
centres of the dents about an inch apart, and on hues parallel 
to the long edges of the wood, as shown in Fig. I, e. Both 
of the side-faces of the board may be covered with dents in 




Fig. I,/ 

WITHDRAWING A NAIL, — FIRST STAGE. 



this way. Be very particular to strike square blows. The 
dent made by a square blow will have the same outline as 
the face of the hammer, and all points of its outline will be 
sunken equally deep. 



STRIKING. 



13 



Ex. I, 6. — To drive tacks. 
Ex. I, 7. — To drive small nails. 
Ex. I, S.—~To drive large nails. 
Ex. I, 9. — To withdraw nails. 




Fig- I, g- 

WITHDRAWING A NAIL, — SECOND STAGE. 

Ex. I, 10. — To drive nails horizontally and at the left hand. 
Ex. I, II. — To drive nails horizontally and at the right hand. 
Ex. I, 12. — Toe-nailing. 
Ex. I, 13. — Blind-nailing. 



CHAPTER II. 



SPLITTINa. 



Caution. — Take care not to split toward yourself. 

Exercise II, i. — The end of the g7'ain ; the yearly 
gj'owth ; the lines of gi'owfh ; the pith-rays ; the age of the 
wood. Take a ve7j thin and thoroughly dry piece of oak, 
cut squarely off from the end of a stick of cord-wood, 
and showing the central pith-tube. Examine its flat sur- 
faces. They exhibit wliat is called the end of the grain. 

(See Fig. II, a.) Observe 
the curves which surround 
the pith-tube, at different 
distances from it. The dis- 
tance between any two of 
these curves indicates the 
thickness of the layer of 
new wood, which grows 
each year between the 
older wood and the bark. 
This new wood may be 
called the yeaj'ly growth. 
The lines which separate 
the growths of succeeding 
years may be called the 
lines of growth. Observe that rays shoot out from the centre 
in all directions. These rays are formed of a pithy sub- 
stance, and may be called pith-rays. Count the layers of 
yearly growth, and thus learn how long it took for the wood 
to grow. 




Fig. II, 



LINES OF EASIEST SEPARATION ON 
THE END OF THE GRAIN. 



SPLITTING. 15 

Ex. II, 2. — Li7ies of easiest separation on the end of the 
grain. Hold the disk in the pahn of the left hand, and 
crush it with the right thumb. Observe that it generally 
breaks along the rays, or along the lines of growth, or along 
zigzag lines, which follow sometimes the rays and sometimes 
the lines. (See Fig. II, a.) 

Ex. II, 3. — Lines of easiest separation along the grain. 
Tear into strips a piece of very thin wood, such as a veneer. 
Notice that the rent follows the grain. Examine the end 
of the grain. It will be found that, generally, the wood has 
split along the pith-rays, or along the lines of growth. 

Ex. II, 4. — Wood breaks more easily along than across 
the grain. Break several of the fragments both lengthwise 
and crosswise of the grain, and observe how much moj^e 
easily they break lengthwise than crosswise. 

Ex. II, 5. — The edge of the grain. Take a somewhat 
wide^ thin, pine stick, which has its wider surfaces parallel, or 
nearly parallel, to the pith-rays, and, therefore, nearly square 
with the lines of growth. Examine these wider surfaces. 
They show what is called the edge of the grain. The edge 
of the grain has a brilliant, glistening appearance, when newly 
split, and is sometimes called " the mirror surface." 

Ex. II, 6. — Cutting ivith the edge ; splitting with the 
wedge ; splitting along the grain. Force the sharp blade of 
a knife into the middle of the end of the stick used in the last 
exercise. (See Fig. II, b.) Observe that at first the wood 
separates exactly at the sharp edge of the blade, and that it is 
the edge that separates th@ wood. When a sharp edge sepa- 
rates a substance, the action is called cutting. Notice that 
before the edge goes far into the wood, the wood tears asunder 
in advance of it, and the edge ceases to act. The wedge 
becomes now the part of the tool which separates the wood. 
When a wedge separates a substance, the action is called 
splitting. Notice that the parts of the wood that are on either 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



side of the blade are about equally stiff. They bend about 
equally to make room for the blade, and the stick splits along 
the grain. 

Ex. II, 7. — SpHtiing along the grain. Wood splits more 
easily along a lifie of growth than at a small angle with 
such a line. Split the pieces of the stick used in the last 
exercise, through the middle, as before, into four, eight, or 
more pieces. Observe that the wood splits, generally, along 
the grain. Notice the lines of growth on the ends. They are 




Fig. II, b. 

THE EDGE OF THE GRAIN. SPLITTING ALONG 
THE GRAIN. 



nearly or quite square with the wider surfaces of the stick. 
Start some of the splits more or less inclined to the lines of 
growth. Notice that such splits will of themselves twist about 
until they become nearly or quite parallel to the lines of 
growth. Notice that the split surfaces are moj-e beautiful 
when parallel to these lines than when slightly inclined to 
them. 

Ex. II, 8. — The side of the grain. Take a thin, some- 
what wide, pine stick, which has its wider surfaces parallel, 



SPLITTING. 



17 



or very nearly parallel, to the lines of growth. Examine 
these wider surfaces. They show what is called the side of 
the grain. When newly split, the side of the grain has an 
appearance somewhat like that of satin, as was seen when 
examining some of the narrow split surfaces produced in 
Ex. II, 7. 

Ex. II, 9. — Splitting partly across the grain. Force the 
blade into the end of the stick used in Ex. II, 8, but very 
near to one edge, as shown in Fig. II, c. Notice that the 




Fig. II, c. 

THE SIDE OF THE GRAIN. SPLITTING PARTLY 
ACROSS THE GRAIN. 



part of the stick which is between the blade and the nearer 
edge is very limber., while the other part is very stiff. It is 
almost entirely by the bending of the limber part that room 
is made for the blade to enter the stick. The inner edge 
of the limber part is so much stretched by this bending that 
it bi'eaJzs across the grain, and the split gradually tears 
through toward the nearer edge. 

Ex. II, 10. — Splitting partly across the grain. Wood 
splits more easily along the pith-rays than at a small angle 



15 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

ivith those rays. Split into fragments the pieces of the stick 
used in Ex. II, 9. Observe that whenever a part split off is 
much more limber than the part from which it was separated, 
the split generally tears through toward the nearer edge. 
Notice the lines of growth on the ends. The pith-rays are 
square with the lines of growth ; but they are not so strongly 
marked, as those Hnes, in pine wood. Start some of the splits 
a little out of square with the lines of growth. They will 
then start somewhat inclined to the pith-rays. Notice that 
such splits will of themselves twist about until they become 
nearly or quite square with the lines of growth, and parallel 
to the pith-rays. Observe that, when the split surfaces are 
parallel to the pith-rays, they have the glistening, mirror-like 
appearance which has been noticed before. 

Ex. II, II. — -Splitting parallel to the grain and to the 
lines of gi'owth. Take a small pme stick, square at its ends, 
with its length parallel to the grain, and with the lines of 
growth, at one end, stretching parallel to two sides of the 
stick. Split it with a sharp knife, parallel to the lines of 
growth, into two nearly equal pieces. Notice how easily it 
splits. 

Ex. II, 12. — Splitting parallel to the grain and to the 
pith-rays. Take a stick like that used in Ex. II, 11. Split 
it square with the lines of growth into two nearly equal 
pieces. Notice that about the same force is required as 
when splitting parallel to those lines. 

Ex. II, 13. — Splitting parallel to the gi-ain, and across 
the lines of groivth and the pith-rays. Take a small pine 
stick, square at its ends, with its length parallel to the grain, 
and with the lines of growth stretching //-^w corner to corner 
at one end. Split it along a line that is parallel to one side 
of the stick. This line will be about equally iiiclined to the 
lines of growth and the pith-rays. Notice that considerably 
more force is required to split diagonally across the lines and 



SPLITTING. 



19 



ra5's than to split parallel to either. Observe that, as the 
split advances, its surface loses its plane, smooth character, 
and becomes furrowed or corrugated, as shown in Fig. II, d. 
Examine the surface and the end of the spHt. Notice that 
parts of the split surfaces are twisted. Near the cut, they are 
parallel to it. At the other end of the stick, they are more 
nearly parallel to the lines of growth, or to the pith-rays. 

Ex. II, 14. — Splitting fire-wood ; the easy iv ay. Split a 
small stick of round fire-wood with a sha?p hand-axe that 




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^^z 


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li 

1 

1 


1 ■' 
1] 


' 



Fig. II, d. 

MORE DIFFICULT TO SPLIT. 



Fig. II, e. 

THE HARD WAY. THE EASY WAY. 



has a good wedge to split with. Extend the first split entirely 
across one end, tJwoiigh the centj'e and along the rays, as 
shown in Fig. II, e. Divide one-half of the stick into quar- 
ters and eighths, along the rays. Divide each eighth into 
two parts along the lines of growth. The wood splits with 
comparative ease at any of these sections. 

Ex. II, 15. — Splitting fir e-ivood ; the hard way. Divide 
the other half of the stick used in the last exercise into two 
parts, along a surface parallel to the first split, and at a dis- 



20 WOOD- WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

tance from it equal to about two-thirds or three-fourths of 
the distance from the pith to the bark. It will be found com- 
paratively difficult to split the wood at this section. 

Knots. — Knots spht most easily at the surface that con- 
tains the central pith-tube of the knot and the main pith-tube 
of the stick. 

In splitting lai'ge logs of wood, two feet or more in diame- 
ter, it is common to proceed as follows : The wood-cutter 
stands upon the top of the log, and sinks the edge of the 




Fig. 11,/ 

LOG-SPLITTING. 



axe into its end as many times as is necessary to make a cut 
along one of the pith-rays and extending from the pith-tube 
to the bark. He then drives one or more large iron wedges 
into the cut, by means of a heavy wooden mallet called a 
beetle. (See Fig. 11,/.) The head of the beetle is usually 
made of elm, or of some other wood which splits with diffi- 
culty ; and both ends of the head are hooped with iron, as a 
further safeguard against its splitting. Having driven in the 
wedge or wedges, he extends the cut along the grain, by 



SPLIITING. 21 

sinking his axe through the bark into the sapwood, thus indi- 
cating the direction which the spKt should follow. He now 
pursues one or the other of two methods, according as the 
log splits with difficulty or with ease. 

First method. — If it splits with difficulty, he rolls the log 
entirely over, and repeats that which he has already done 
tipo7i the other side. That is, he extends the cut entirely 
across the diameter of the log by the aid of his axe. With 
the beetle he drives other wedges into the split, and with the 
axe he extends the cut lengthwise of the log. He proceeds 
thus, spHtting or cutting as his judgment dictates, until the 
log is divided from end to end. 

Second method. — If the log splits easily, the method pur- 
sued only differs from that which has just been described in 
this ; that he does not roll the log over, but performs all of 
his work upon one side. 



CHAPTER HI. 

CUTTING. 

Cautious. — Never cut with a dull tool. Never cut 

TOWARD YOURSELF. 

When a sharp edge separates a substance, the 

action is called cutting. The knife, the shave, the chisel, the 
hatchet, the axe, are cutting tools. When a wood-cutting- 
tool is very sharp, its edge divides the wood in its path, with- 
out either tearing the fibres apart or crushing them. If the 
edge is dull, it may make its way through the wood, partly by 
cutting and partly by tearing or crushing, but it will never 
make 2iJ?right, clean cut when dull. The blade of a cutting- 
tool is wedge-shaped, and grows thicker from the edge towards 
the back. As it penetrates, it forces the particles that are 
divided by the edge farther and farther apart. 

Cutting without splitting. If the chip or shaving re- 
moved is very thin, it bends easily out of the way of the tool, 
and does not check its progress. The shaving is cut, not 
split, from the stick. The shaving bends so easily that even 
the fibres of the shaving are not split apart. 

Ex. Ill, I. — Cutting lengthwise without splitting. With 
a very shaip pocket-knife, cut lengthwise of the grain a very 
thin shaving from a piece of soft wood. It will bend out of 
the way, as in Fig. Ill, a. 

Ex. Ill, 2. — Cutting crosswise without splitting. Cut 
crosswise of the grain a very thin sliaving from the piece of 
soft wood. It will bend out of the way, as in Fig. Ill, b. 

In both exercises, III, i and III, 2, the shaving bends so 
easily out of the way, that the wedge has, practically, no work 



CUTTING. 



2'A 



to do. 



The cutting-edge removes the shaving without aid 



from the wedge. 




Fig. Ill, a. 

CUTTING LENGTHWISE OF THE GRAIN WITHOUT 
SPLITTING. 

If a chip or shaving is so thick that it does not bend 
out of the way, when being removed, the wedge of the tool 
squeezes the particles of wood that it touches, into the 
adjoining wood, and by thus compressing it, makes room for 




Fig. Ill, b. 

CUTTING CROSSWISE OF THE GRAIN WITHOUT SPLITTING. 

itself as it cuts deeper and deeper. When the wood is much 
compressed, great force is required to compress it, and it 
would be difficult to cut a thick stick in two, in this way. 



24 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 



Ex. Ill, 3. — Cutting with compression. Lay the stick 
used in Ex. Ill, i, upon its side, and force the blade as far 
as you can into the stick, square across the grain, at a short 
distance from the end. (See Fig. Ill, c.) Notice that when 
the blade has been withdrawn, the wood cannot recover its 
original shape, and a gap is left in it. Tliis is a true cut, 
because the cutting-edge divides the wood, but it is cutting 
cotnbined with coinpression. The ciLt is as easily made in 
this exercise as in Ex. Ill, 2. It is the force required to 
compress the wood, by means of the wedge, that makes it so 
difficult to divide the stick. 




Fig. Ill, c. 

CUTTING WITH COMPRESSION. 



If wood could be compressed as easily as fruit can, the 
stick would be as easily divided. If it could recover its 
shape as easily, it would be as little injured. 

Ex. Ill, 4. — Cutting with coinpression. Drive a sharp 
mortising chisel far into a thick piece of pine with a mallet. 
Cut square acj^oss the grain. Notice that great force is re- 
quired to compress the wood, and that the wood cannot 
recover its shape, after the blade has been withdrawn. 

Ex. Ill, 5. — To lessen the work of cutting witli conprcs- 
sion, by causing a thick chip to split. Cut a thin piece of pine, 
diagonally across the grain, near one end. Begin at about 
half an inch or an inch from the end, and force the knife 



CUTTING. 



25 



through, making a cut that is square with the wider flat sur- 
faces of the wood, as in Fig. Ill, d. The chip will make 
room for the blade, by splitting along the pith-rays, or the lines 
of growth, for // requires less force to split the chip in this 
way, than to co?fipress the wood. 




Fig. Ill, d. 

THE CHIP SPLITS TO MAKE ROOM FOR THE BLADE. 



Ex. Ill, 6. To lessen the work^of cutting with compres- 
sion, by taking advantage of the flexibility of the wood. Cut 
a thin piece of pine, diagonally across the grain, near one end, 
as in Ex. Ill, 5, except that the cut should be inclined about 
45° to the flat surfaces of the wood, as is shown in Fig. Ill, <?. 
The chip is so flexible that very little pressure is needed to 
bend it out of the way of the blade. 

The very sharpest cutting-edge is notched. — If 
the sharpest cutting- edge should be examined through a pow- 



26 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

erful microscope, it would be found to be notched all along 
its length. It is thus like a saw with exceedingly minute 
teeth, and acts to the best advantage, if it is made to slide 
in the direction of its length, while it is being forced through 
the wood. 




Fig. Ill, e. 

THE CHIP BENDS TO MAKE ROOM FOR THE BLADE. 

Ex. Ill, 7. — To test the advantage of sliding the edge 
while cutting. Repeat Ex. Ill, i, without sliding the edge 
while cutting ; then repeat it again, sliding the edge in the 
direction of its length. Notice how much more easily the 
cut is made, and, also, how much more brilliant the cut sur- 
face is, in the latter case. Repeat twice, each of the exer- 
cises III, 2-6, in a similar manner and for a similar purpose. 



CHAPTER IV. 
PLANING. 

Cautions. — Brush all grit and dirt from the surface 

BEFORE BEGINNING TO PLANE, AND THUS AVOID DULLING 

THE IRON. When pushing the plane, keep its sole 

PARALLEL WITH THE SURFACE TO BE FORMED. 

Exercise IV, i. — To remove the saw-mai'ks from a rough, 
-fiat board with a jaciz-piane. — Stand with the right side of 
the body at the bench, at the rear end of the board, with the 
ieft foot advanced in a bracing attitude, and so that the body 
may move freely, lengthwise of the bench. Grasp the handle 
of the plane j^?';;z/)' in the right hand, with the forefinger ex- 
tended to touch the plane-iron. (See Fig. IV, ^.) 

To begin the stroke, grasp the stock of the plane, in front 
of the plane -iron, firmly with the left hand, the left thumb 
pressing on the left side of the stock, and with the four 
fingers on the opposite side, nearly at right angles with the 
sole of the plane. Place the sole of the plane on the left- 
hand edge of the board, with the plane-iron behind the rear 
end of the board. Push steadily with the right hand, and 
p7'ess down with the left hand, so as to keep the toe of the 
plane fiat upon the sicrface of the board. This will prevent 
the plane from tilting endwise, the shaving from being too 
thick at the start, and the board from being too thin at the 
rear end. If the shaving is too thick at the start, the plane 
may jump and leave a bunch on the board. When the stroke 
has extended as far as is convenient, let the left arm drop 
easily to the side, and continue the stroke with the right 
hand. (See Fig. IV, ^.) 



28 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




l'|l||i|l|IMI|lii i||l l|lliil||Mll|i|li|ll'llilHllil||||||||lll||||||l|lllll||i|l|l||||i||lll^^ 



\ 



Ml^ 




llllillli.|'i'ilii||l!iillllMill!!ii^ 




Fig. IV, a. 

THE TOE IS PRESSED DOWN WITH THE LEFT HAND. 



PLANING. 



29 






^^ 



Fig. IV, b. 

THE LEFT HAND DROPS TO THE SIDE, WHILE THE STROKe' IS C^ON- 
TINUED WITH THE RIGHT. THE HEEL IS KEPT DOWN WITH THE 
RIGHT HAND. 



30 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 



While returning the plane to the rear end of the board, tip 
it upon the left-hand edge of the sole, in order to avoid dull- 
ing the iron. (See Fig. IV, c.) 

When planing near either edge of the board (see Fig. 
IV, d) , keep the sole of the plane flat upon the board. This 
will prevent the plane from tipping sidewise, the shaving from 
being too thick and the board from being too thin, at the 
edges. 





llilllllliliil 



lli 



Fig. IV, c. 

THE PLANE IS TIPPED, TO AVOID DULLING IT. 



When planing near the forward end of the board, press 
down with the right hand, so as to keep the heel of the plane 
flat upon the surface of the board until the plane-iron has 
passed entirely off from it. (See Fig. IV, ^.) This will pre- 
vent the shaving from being too thick and the board from 
being too thin at the forward end. If the board is longer 
than a convenient stroke, take each succeeding stroke a little 
to the right of the last until the right-hand edge has been 



PLANING. 



31 



reached, then advance the length of the stroke, and proceed 
as before. Occasionally brush away the shavings, so that the 
plane may rest flat upon the board. 




Fig. IV, d. 



THE SOLE IS KEPT FLAT ON THE BOARD, WHEN PLANING NEAR THE 

EDGE. 



Ex. IV, 2. — To test the flatness of a newly-pla^ied sur- 
face. Place either edge of the sole upon the surface, and 
look toward the light between the edge and the surface. 
(See Fig. IV, ^.) Repeat the test at different places along 
the board. Siglit lengthwise of the board. Sight diagonally 
across the board. 



32 WOOD- WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. IV, e. 
TESTING THE FLATNESS OF THE BOARD. 



CHAPTER V. 

SHARPENING. 

Jack-knives, and some hatchets, are ground upon both 
sides. Paring chisels and plane-irons are ground upon one 
side only. 

Ex. V, I. — To sharpen a jack-knife vpon an oil-stone. 

Ex. V, 2. — To sharpen a paring-chisel upon an oil-stone. 

Ex. V, 3. — To sharpen a hatchet upon an oil-stone. 

Ex. V, 4. — To withdraw the plane-iron from its position 
in the stock. Hold the plane in the left hand, with the 
thumb in its throat, as shown in Fig. V, a. Press against 
the chip, with the thumb, to prevent the iron and the chip 
from falling, when they have been loosened. Loosen the iron 
and the chip, by striking a few light blows upon the toe, as 
shown in Fig. V, a. Withdraw the iron and the chip, with 
the right hand, and put the iron, the chip, and the stock, 
upon the bench. 

Ex. V, 5. — To sharpen the plane-iron upon an oil-stone. 
If the iron has a cap, remove it by the aid of a screw-driver. 
Then grasp the iron in the right hand, as shown in Fig. V, b, 
with the thumb on its edge, the first two fingers stretched 
upon its upper side, the last two fingers closed against the 
under side, and the end pressed against the palm of the hand. 
Steady the iron, while sharpening it, by pressing the first three 
fingers of the left hand upon the upper side, and the thumb 
against the under side, as shown in Fig. V, c. Rub the iron 
over the surface of the oil-stone, in such a manner that the 
wide, flat surfaces of the iron will remain constantly at an 
angle of 35° with the upper surface of the oil-stone. (See 



34 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. V, a. 
WITHDRAWING THE IRON. 



SHARPENrNC. 



35 




Fig. V, h. 

THE RIGHT-HAND GRASP, 
THE CORRECTLY SHARPENED IRON, AT A. 
THE INCORRECTLY SHARPENED IRON, AT B. 



36 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. V, c. 

SHARPENING THE IRON, 



SHARPENING. 



37 




Fig. V, d. 

REPLACING THE IRON, 



3^ WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

A, Fig. V, b^ Take care not to permit a variation, in the 
inclination of the iron to the oil-stone, while rubbing, for, if 
the indination varies, an objectionable rounded edge will be 
produced. (See B, Fig. V, b.) If a burr or ''wire-edge'' 
forms, turn the iron over and rub it upon the surface of the 
stone while the iron lies flat upon it. 

Ex. V, 6. — To replace the iron. Hold the stock in the 
left hand, with the thumb in its throat, with the fingers under 
its sole, and with the tip of the second finger in its mouth. 
Replace the iron and the chip, press gently upon the chip 
with the thumb, and insert the iron so far that its cutting- 
edge may be felt by the tip of the second finger. Take care 
not to cut the finger. Drive the chip in sufficiently far to 
hold the iron. (See Fig. V^ d^ 



CHAPTER VI. 
ADJUSTING THE PLANE-IRON. 

The principal adjustment of the plane-iron is for the pur- 
pose of determining or changing the thickness of the shaving 
which it can cut. 

Exercise VI, i. — To determiiie the thichtess of the shav- 
ing. Having replaced the iron, as in Ex. V, 6, sight length- 
wise of the sole, to see if the cutting-edge is in the desired 
position. If it does not project enough, strike a.hght blow, 
with the hammer, on the opposite end of the iron, as is shown 
in Fig. VI, a. If the ?7^/z/-hand portion of the cutting-edge 
projects, beyond the sole, more than the left-hand portion 
does, correct the inequality by driving the opposite end of 
the iron from right to left, as is shown in Fig. VI, b. If the 
/^/-hand portion of the cutting edge projects too much, drive 
the opposite end of the iron from left to right, as is shown in 
Fig. VI, c. Notice, that in order to drive the end of the iron 
from left to right, easily, the heel of the plane should be thrown 
well toward the right side. If the entire cutting-edge pro- 
jects too much from the sole, strike one or two hght taps on 
the top of the toe, as is shown in Fig. V, a, and afterwards 
tighten the chip, as in Fig. V, d. Finally, sight endwise of 
the sole, as in Fig. VI, a, to see if the iron is accurately 
adjusted. 

Ex. VI, 2. — To test the adjustment of the plane-iron. 
Try the plane upon a board or plank, to see if it will remove 
shavings of the desired thickness. 



40 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VI, a. 

MAKING THE IRON PROJECT FURTHER. 



ADJUSTING THE PLANE-IRON. 



41 




Fig. VI, b, 

MAKING THE LEFT-HAND PORTION OF THE EDGE PROJECT,, 



42 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VI, c. 

MAKING THE RIGHT-HAND PORTION OF THE EDGE PROJECT. 



ADJUSTING THE PLANE-IRON. 43 

Ex. VI, 3. — To vary the adjustment so as to produce 
shavings which differ in thickness. Repeat Exercises V, 4, 
V, 6, and VI, 1-2, several times in succession, in the order 
named, withdrawing, replaciiig, and adjusting the i?'on to 
produce shavings which differ in thickness. Finally, test 
the different adjustments by makmsf shavings and examining 
them. 



CHAPTER VII. 
MARKING AND LINING. 

Exercise VII, i. — To mark off distances. Rest the 
graduated edge of the rule, upon the board, parallel to the 
tried edge, as shown in Fig. VII, a. Rest the elbow upon 
the board, elevate the wrist, hold the rule firmly between the 
thumb and the middle finger, to prevent it firom tipping, and 
rest the other fingers upon the top of the rule, to keep it 
steady, as shown. Mark points upon the board, with a pen- 
cil, scriber, knife, or other marking tool, where the lines on 
the rule touch the board. 

To make a chalk-mark connecting two points 
of a surface, the " chalk-line " is used. It is a small, stout 
cord, upon which chalk has been rubbed. When stretched 
tightly between the points, and snapped by being raised and 
let go, it leaves a distinct chalk-mark upon the surface. 

Ex. VII, 2. — To chalk the chalk-line. Pass the awl 
through the loop in the end of the line, and thrust it into the 
wood at one of the points that the mark is to join. Draw the 
line tight with the left hand, holding it between the thumb and 
the forefinger, as shown in Fig. VII, b. Hold the chalk in 
the right hand, bend the cord at the chalk, keep the flat sur- 
face of the chalk parallel to the two straight parts of the bent 
cord ; let the cord just touch the inner surface of the thumb. 
Rub the chalk upon the cord, beginning near the awl. No- 
tice that, when the line and chalk are held as has been directed, 
the line will wear away the chalk without wastifig it. 

Ex. VII, 3. — To join two given points of a horizontal 
board, by a straight chalk-mark. Pass the awl through the 



MARKING AND LINING. 



45 




Fig. VII, a. 

MARKING OFF DISTANCES. 



46 WOOD- WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, h. 

CHALKING THE LINE. 



MARKING AND LINING. 47 

loop in the line, and press it into the wood at one of the 
given points. Chalk the line. Then stretch it tightly, cov- 
ering the other given point with it. If convenient to do so, 
stand at the end of the board, with the right foot advanced 
toward it. With the left thtcmb press the line against the board 
near its end, and with the fingers of the left hand draw the 
line tight. (See Fig. VII, <r.) Shut one eye and place the 
other directly over the lifie. Grasp the line, at a point which 
is about a foot distant from the left thumb, between the tips 
of the forefinger and thumb of the right hand. Rest the little 
finger of the right hand upon the board to steady the hand. 
(See Fig. VII, d.) Keep the surface of contact of the thimib 
and fo7'efinger vertical and also parallel to the line. (See 
Fig. VII, e.) Raise the cord vertically with the right hand. 
Sight lengthwise of the line. If it appears straight whe?i seen 
f'oni a point directly over it, it will have been raised vei'tically. 
Let go the line. On removing it, a straight chalk-mark will 
be found, on the board, joining the given points. 

Second method. If it is more convenient to stand at the 
side of the board, use the left hand, and the eyes, as before. 
Grasp the hne between the right forefinger and thumb, with 
the right palm down, and with the backs of the fingers to 
the front. Keep the siifface of contact of the thumb and 
forefinger vertical and parallel to both straight portions of 
the line. Snap the hne, as before. 

Ex. VII, 4. — To join two given points of a horizontal 
board, by a crooked chalk-mark. Stretch the chalked line 
between the given points, as in Ex. VII, 3. Carry the line 
to the left, or to the right, of the vertical while raising it. If 
it appears, from a point directly over its original position, to 
be bent at the right thumb and finger, it has been carried to 
the right or left of the vertical. Let go the line. On remov- 
ing it, a crooked chalk-mark will be found upon the board. 

Ex. VII, 5. — To join two given points of a board by aid 



WOOD -WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, c. 

SNAPPING THE CHALK-LINE. POSITION OF THE BODY. 



MARKING AND LINING. 



49 



< 



Fig. VII, ./. 

SNAPPING THE CHALK-LINE. POSITION OF THE HANDS. 



50 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, e. 



THE SURFACE OF CONTACT OF THE THUMB AND FOREFINGER, 
AS SEEN FROM A POINT IN THE VERTICAL PLANE OF 
THE CHALK-LINE. 



MARKING AND LINING. 5 I 

of a straight or a curved ruler. The ruler should be placed 
upon the surface of the board, with its edge passing very near 
to both of the points, luithout covering them. The edge should 
be equally distant from both points. Prevent the ruler from 
slipping upon the surface of the board by weights, or by some 
other means. With the right hand place the marking-tool 
on one of the points, and incline it toward the edge until it 
rests against it. With the left hand, press the edge of the 
ruler, near the point where the mai'king-tool touches it, firmly 
down 2ipon the surface of the board. Mark along the edge 
of the ruler without vaiying the inclination of the marking- 
tool, either to the surface of the board, or to the edge of the 
ruler. Vary the position of the left hand, as often as is neces- 
sary, to keep the surface of the ruler in contact with the board 
near the point where the marking-tool touches it. Take care 
that the marking-tool does not follow the grain of the wood, 
causing the inclination of the tool to vary, or causing the 
ruler to slip upon the surface of the board. The result will 
be a faithful copy of the shape of the edge of the ruler. 

Ex. VII, 6. — To mark, roughly, a line icpon a board, 
parallel tj an edge and at a given distance fro?n it. Clasp 
the graduated rule firmly with the left hand. Rest the rule 
upon the board, with its length square with the edge, and with 
its end at the given distance from it. With the left thumb, 
press the rule upon the surface of the board ; rest the left 
forefinger against the edge of the board. (See Fig. VII, /.) 
Place the second finger of the right hand upon the board, 
and against the end of the rule. Let the marking-tool touch 
the end of the rule, the second finger, and the surface of the 
board. (See Fig. VII, /.) Slide the marking-tool and rule 
along the surface. The line thus drawn will be nearly parallel 
to the edge, and nearly at the given distance from it. 

Ex. VII, 7. — To mark a straight line through a given 
point, at right angles to a tried edge, when the tried edge is 



52 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, /. 
DRAWING A LINE NEARLY PARALLEL TO THE EDGE. 



MARKING AND LINING. 



53 




Fig. VII,, ^. 

THE LEFT-HAND EDGE IS THE TRIED EDGE. 



54 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, Jl. 
THE RIGHT-HAND EDGE IS THE TRIED EDGE. 



MARKING AND LINING. 



55 



the left-hand edge of the board. With the fingers of the left 
hand, press the beam of the try-square firmly against the tried 
edge. (See Fig. VII, g.) Let the edge of the blade pass 
very near to the given point without covering it. With the 
thumb, press the blade of the square firmly upon the surface 
of the board, changing the position of the thumb, if necessary, 
as the marking-tool moves along the edge. Place the marking- 
tool upon the given point, and against the edge of the blade. 
Mark across the board without changing the inclination of the 
tool, or permitting the blade to spring off from the surface. 

Second metliod. Place the marking-tool upon the given 
point, and the square upon the board, with the edge of its blade 
at a little distance from the tool. Slide the square toward 
the tool, until the edge of its blade touches the tool. While 
sliding the square, press its beam against the tried edge. If 
the tool is not pushed out of position by the blade, there is no 
objection to this method. 

Ex. VII, 8. — To mark a straight line, through a given 
point, at right angles to a tried edge, when the tried edge is the 
right-hand edge of the board. (See Fig. VII, /z.) Proceed 
as in Ex. VII, 7, except that the beam of the square is to be 
pressed against the tried edge with the left thumb, and the 
blade is to be pressed against the surface with the fingers of 
the left hand. 

Ex. VII, 9. — To mark, accuj'ately, upon a block, a line 
parallel to a tried edge, and at a given distance from it. 
Grasp the lower side of the block with the left hand. Grasp 
the gauge with the right hand, the first finger encircling the 
head, and the thumb pressed against the side of the bar as 
nearly opposite the spur as may be. (Fig. VII, /.) Press the 
head against the tried edge, the further lower corner of the 
bar resting upon the surface. (Fig. VII, 7.) Beginning at 
the nearest point, picsh the gauge forward with the thumb, 
turning it just enough to make a mark with the spur. The 
mark must not be too deep. 



56 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. —- HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. VII, ?. 

THE THUMB IS OPPOSITE THE SPUR. 



MARKING AND LINING. 57 




Fig. VIII, y. 

THE FURTHER LOWER CORNER OF THE BAR RESTS UPON THE SURFACE. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SCORING AND PARING. 

When a specified form is to be " roughed out " of a stick 
of wood, it is usual to make the largest chips that can be 
removed with safety, in order that the unnecessary work of 
cutting the wood into small chips may be avoided. This is 
30 important an art, that, in well conducted wood- carving 




Fig. VIII, a. 

SCORING. 



Fig. VIII, b, 

PARING. 



estabhshments, only the most skilful workmen are permitted 



to rough out work. 



Large chips may be removed by scoring and 
paring. 

Exercise VIJI, i. — To trim to a line, with a hatchet. 
Take a piece of pine board and mark a line upon it about 



SCORING AND PARING. 59 

an inch from one edge. Remove the wood, between the mark 
and the edge, by scoring and paring. Score into the board, 
as shown in Fig. VIII, a, beginning at the end that rests 
upon the block ; then reverse the board, and pare off the 
chips, as shown in Fig. VIII, b. Do not attempt to finish 
the surface. The common hatchet is not a finishing tool. 

Ex. VIII, 2. — To make a chamfer, with a knife. Draw 
lines, on two of the sides of a pine stick, parallel to one of 
its long edges. Score into the stick, nearly to the lines, 
then reverse it, and pare or whittle off the chips, as shown 
in Fig. VIII, c. 




Fig. VIII, c. 

MAKING A CHAMFER, 

Ex. VIII, 3. — To make chamfers, with a carver's chisel. 
Draw lines, upon one of the wide, flat surfaces of a block, 
parallel to its edges. Draw similar lines upon each of the 
four adjoining surfaces. Cut, first, the chamfers that cross 
the grain (see Figs. VIII, d, VIII, e, and VIII,/), then the 
others. Finish the chanfers, as you cut away the chips. 
The carver's chisel is a finishing tool. 

Ex. VIII, 4. — To cut to a semi-circular line, with a par- 
ing chisel. Describe, with the dividers, a semi-circle near 
one end of a pine stick. (See Fig. VIII, g.) Pare to the 



6o WOOD- WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM 




Fig. VIII, d. 
CHAMFERED BLOCK. 




Fig. VIII, e. 

CUTTLNG A CHAMFER ACROSS THE GRAIN. 



SCORING AND PARING. 



6i 




Fig. VIII,/ 

IF THE CHISEL CUTS TOWARD THE BLOCK, WHEN IT CUTS THE EDGE, 
THE EDGE WILL NOT BE SPLINTERED. 



62 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



line, as shown. The fij-st cut should be made a short dis- 
tance outside of the line, and near one end of the semi- 
circle. The chips will then, easily, spHt out of the way of 
the chisel. After reaching the middle of the semi-circle, 
begin again at the other end. Finally, finish with Hght 
chips, cutting close to the semi-circle. 




Fig. VIII, g. 

PARING. 



CHAPTER IX. 
SAWING. 

Caution. — Take care not to remove any part of the 

GUIDING LINE WITH THE SAW. 

Exercise IX, i. — Cross-cut sawing. Take a piece of 
clear pine board, on which hnes are drawn square with the 
tried edge. With the left hand, grasp the tried edge in such 
a place as will bring the thumb-nail, when extended, even 
with the Hne farthest to the right, at the same time pressing 
down on the board, ivith the pali7i of the hand, to hold it 
firmly in place on the horses. (See Fig. IX, ^.) Grasp 
the saw with the right hand, with the forefinger extended 
along the side of the handle, to assist in steadying the saw, and 
with the other fingers passed through the opening made for 
that purpose. That hand will then take, nearly, the position 
that it has when one is pointing with the forefinger. Place 
the middle of the cutting-edge of the saw, at the line, on the 
tried edge of the board, the blade 7'e sting gently against the 
left thumb-nail. The left-hand points of the teeth, should 
just graze, but not cut into, the line. Hold the blade of the 
saw, squai'e with the surface of the board. Without bearing 
on the saw, draw it several inches toward the shoulder in a 
straight line. This will start the ke?f, and will prevent the 
saw from moving sidewise, and the edge from being to7'7t and 
spli7ite7'ed. With very slight pressure, reverse the motion just 
completed, and move the saw its full length, back and forth, 
continually, guiding it by the line drawn. To guide the saw 
correctly, watch closely its path, from a position vertically 
above the line. If the saw leaves the line, twist the blade, 



64 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 



while it is moving, in the kerf. The back edge of the saw 
is somewhat thinner than the cutting-edge. Then the blade 
can thus be twisted, and the true line returned to. .'Oo not 
press upon the saw, for if it is pressed upon, it will be more 
liable to depart from the line, and it will cut less smoothly. 
The saw may be injured by pressing too hard upon it. 

To ascertain if the blade is square with the surface of the 




Fig. IX, a. 

STARTING THE KERF, 



SAWING. 65 

board, grasp the beam of the try-square, with the left hand, 
with its inside edge next to the pahn. Place the outside 
edge of the beam upon the work, and the outside edge of 
the tongue against the side of the saw. When the kerf is 




Fig. IX, b. 

PREVENTING THE PIECE FROiM FALLING, AND THE EDGE 
FROM SPLINTERING. 



66 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 

square with the surface, the saw will touch the edge of the 
square its full length. When the kerf is not square with 
the surface, bend the blade of the saw toward the desired 
position, while it is moving in the kerf and until the fault is 
corrected. When the saw is well advanced through the work, 
place the left knee against the nearest edge of the board, to 
prevent it from moving. Grasp the board, with the thumb 
and finger of the left hand, on both sides of the kerf, to sup- 
port the piece that is being sawn off. While in this position, 
the sawing may be completed, without permitting the piece 
to fall upon the floor. Near the end of the cut, take short, 
light, quick strokes, to prevent splintering the edge. (Fig. 
IX, ^.) 

Ex. IX, 2. — Rip- sawing. Take a clear pine board, with 
lines drawn upon it lengthwise. Place it upon the horses, 
nearly as shown in Fig. IX, c, but let its right-hand edge so 
far over-hang the horses., that the saw can pass the ends of 
the horses freely. The end of the board need not over-hang 
the side of the first horse, as shown. With the right hand, 
grasp the saw, as in Ex. IX, i. Press the right knee upon 
the board, to hold it in position. With the left hand, grasp 
the end of the board, and, at first, with the left thumb-nail, 
guide the blade steadily. Saw close to the line but do not 
remove any of it. Should the parts, on each side of the 
blade, draw together and bind it in the kerf, insert a wedge, 
in the kerf, in front of the saw. A scratch-awl or a screw- 
driver is usually at hand and can be used for this purpose. 
(See Fig. IX, d.^ Generally, when rip-sawing from the butt of 
a tree towards the top, the parts spread ; and when rip-sawing 
in the opposite direction, from the top towards the butt, the 
parts come together and bind the saw. 

The board may be so narrow, that it cannot be held firmly, 
if its right-hand edge over-hangs the ends of the horses. In 
that case, place it upon the horses, as shown in Fig. IX, c. 



SAWING. 



67 




Fig. IX, c. 

MOVING THE BOARD TO AVOID CUTTING THE HORSE. 



68 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



KOW TO USE THEM. 



Saw along a line, almost to the first horse. Move the board 
forward and, again, cut toward the horse. After the kerf has 
been made long enough, move the board backward, rest its 
end on the horse, and place the saw, in the kerf, behind the 
horse. (See Fig. IX, d.) 




Fig. IX, d. 

SPREADING THE KERF. 



CHAPTER X. 
REDUCING WARPED TO PLANED SURFACES. 

Exercise X, i. — To warp a board. Wet one side and 
dry the other. 

Ex. X, 2. — To produce a plane from a warped surface, 
using saw, chisel, block-plane, and jack-plane. Lay a warped 
board, of even thickness, on the bench, with the hollow side 
up, and observe that it will rock on the bench. Put wedges 
underneath, to prevent it from rocking. So adjust the wedges, 
that the highest corners of the board will be equally distant 
from the bench. Draw a line, on each end of the board, 
parallel to the top of the bench, and touching the lowest 
part of the upper edge. About three-fourths of an inch 
from each end, make a cut with a cross-cut saw, from the 
top of the board downward. Let it end in a line, parallel 
with the surface of the bench, but not quite so near to that 
surface as the line drawn across the end. Remove, with 
a chisel and block-plane, all of the wood lying between 
each saw-cut and the nearest end, thus producing a surface 
nearly or quite parallel to the bench, and containing the hne 
drawn upon the end, as shown in Fig. X, b. Take two 
straight-edged sticks of equal width, about twenty or thirty 
inches long, having 07ie thin or feather edge. These sticks 
are called " winders." Place one of them in each notch, 
with the thin edge uppermost. Sight across them, as in 
Fig. X, c. If the thin edges are found to be in line, the 
surfaces upon which the winders rest are in the same plane ; 
if the thin edges are not in line, one or both of those sur- 
faces must be cut away, until they do come into the same 



70 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

plane. Join the edges of the surfaces thus formed, by- 
straight Hnes drawn on each of the long sides of the board. 
Remove all of the wood that lies above the plane surface 
containing these lines. The result is the desired plane sur- 




Fig. X, a. 

UPPER SURFACE WARPED. 




Fig. X, b. 
SURFACES AT ENDS PARALLEL TO BENCH. 

face. The saw, the chisel, and the plane, may all be used in 
removing the superfluous wood. Test the surface, occasion- 
ally, with a straight-edge, placed crosswise of the board. 



REDUCING WARPED TO PLANED SURFACES, 7 1 




X! 



CHAPTER XI. 

PRODUCING PLANE SURFACES THAT ARE 
SQUARE ^^ITH EACH OTHER. 

Exercise XI, i. — Make a number of blocks from clear 
pine boards. The edges are to be square with, or parallel 
with, one another. The side-faces are to be smooth-planed, 
the edge-faces are to be jointed, and the ends are to be 
block-planed. 

Ex. XI, I. — Make a number of blocks from clear pine 
plank. The edges are to be square with, or parallel with, 
one another. The sides are to be jointed, and the ends are 
to be block-planed. 



PRODUCING PLANE SURFACES. 



73 




Fig. XI, a. 
THE USE OF THE BACK-SAW AND THE BENCH-HOOK, 



74 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. XI, b. 
THE USE OF THE BACK-SAW AND THE BENCH-HOOK. 



CHAPTER XII. 
BORING. 

Exercise XII, i . — To bore^ across the grain, partly through 
a block. Bore a number of holes in a pine block, in regulai 
succession. (See Fig. XII, ^.) Let the centres of the hole? 
be in the same line and so near to one another that thi 
wood will break out between the holes. Bore to within about 



/^>^i>^iy>m:>^^ 




Fig. XII, a. 

BORING, ACROSS THE GRAIN, PARTLY THROUGH. 

a quarter of an inch of the under side of the block. Make 
several lines of holes in this way. Let the centre lines of 
the holes be square with the upper surface. 

Ex. XII, 2. — To bore, across the grain, entirely through 
a block. (See Fig. XII, ^.) Bore holes, as in Ex. XII, i, 
but let the point of the bit go entirely through. Then turn 
the block over, and bore from the other side. 



76 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 




Fig. XII, b. 
BORING, ACROSS THE GRAIN, ENTIRELY THROUGH. 



Ex. XII, 3. — To bo7'e, across the grain, through a block, 
and entirely from 07ie side. Bore a number of holes entirely 
through a pine block, as in Ex. XII, 2, but, instead of turning 
the block over, in order to bore from the under side, clainp 
the block upoji the top of another, by means of a hand-screw 
or of a vise, and bore entirely through from one side. 

Ex. XII, 4. — To bore, lengthwise of the grain, beginning 
at the ends, and meeting in the centre. Take a sufficiently 
thick piece of clear pine, and find the centre of each e7td hy 
drawing diagonal lines upon it. Bore, with the grain, along 
the centre line, half the length of the block. Tur7i the stick 
end for end, and bore until the holes meet in the centre. 

Ex. XII, 5. — To bore le7igthwise of the grain e7itirely 
tlu'ougJi f7'077i 07ie e7id. Take a sufficiently thick piece of 
clear pine. Find the centre of each end. Draw the centre 
lines, of two of the lo7ig adjoining sides. Bore with the 
grain along the centre line entirely through the \A0Q\Lfr07n 
end to e7id. Occasionally, sight lengthwise of the bit, to see 
if it is parallel with the long centre lines. 

Ex. XII, 6. — To sharpe7i the bit. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
JOINERY. 

Some of the surfaces of finished joints are more conspicu- 
ous and important than the rest. This is true of those sur- 
faces of the joined parts of a picture-frame, which can be 
seen when the picture is viewed. In such cases, the appear- 
ance of the work is improved, if pains are taken to select for 
those more conspicuous positions the best surfaces of the 
sticks, to be joined. Conspicuous surfaces of one stick, are 
often intended to be flush with conspicuous surfaces of the 
other stick, to which it is to be joined. These may be called 
the flush surfaces. All of the lines that are drawn, in laying 
out the work, should have their positions fixed with reference 
to these flush surfaces. Frequently, 07ie piece is used as a 
measui-e or pattern, for determining the dimensions of the 
parts of the other piece that are to fit it. 

Any stick that is to be used in the following exercises, 
should have its edges made either parallel to or square with 
one another, before beginning the exercise. The first step 
to be taken in any of the exercises is to select and mark each 
of the flush surfaces with an X. Whenever it is desirable to 
prev^ent tlie work from slipping about, hold it against the 
wooden bench-hook, fasten it in the vise, or fasten it upon 
the bench with a wooden hand-screw. When cutting cross- 
grained wood with a chisel, cut dlago7ialfy across the grain, in 
such direction that 710 splits shall exte7id into the stick, but all 
i7ito the chips. 



78 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



Halving Together. 

Exercise XIII, i. — To halve together two sticks, at their 
ends. (See Fig. XIII, a.) Mark one stick A and the other 
B. To mark the flush surfaces. Notice that, as is indicated 
by the sketch of the finished joint, the top of A is to be flush 
with the top of B ; a long side of A is to be flush with an 
end of B ; and an. end of A is to be flush with a long side of 
B. Select, and mark with an X, the surfaces of A and of B, 
that will make the handsomest and best flush surfaces. 




Fig. XIII, a. 

A HALVED-TOGETHER JOINT. 



To line out the work. Place the try-square upon B, with 
its beam touching the long, vertical, marked surface, with its 
tongue upon the top, and with its edge a little less than the 
width of A from the marked end of B. Place A, right side 
up, upon the top of B, with one long, lower edge, touching 
the edge of the square, and with its marked end flush with 
the marked, vertical side of B. Slide A and the try-square, 
together, along the top of B, until the marked, vertical side of 
A, becomes flush with the marked end of B. Remove A, and, 



JOINERY. ' 70 

(Nrith a sharp knife, line across B, at the edge of the square. 
Extend this line half-way down each of the long, vertical 
sides of B. Draw similar lines upon the lower side, and the 
long, vertical sides, of A, using the upper side of B as a mea- 
sure, and turning the tops of both pieces downward, in order 
that the lines may be easily drawn. Set the spur of the 
gauge at a distance from the head equal to half of the com- 
mon height of the sticks. Guide iJie head of the gauge by 
the upper surfaces of A and B, in turn, and gauge along both 
of the long vertical sides of each, from the vertical lines pre- 
viously drawn to the marked ends. Gauge also across the 
marked ends. Place each stick, in turn, in the mitre-box, or 
in the vise, or against the bench-hook. Saw across each, 
with a sharp, fine-toothed back-saw, close to the knife-marks, 
and down to the gauge-marks. Take care not to remove^ 
with the saw, any portion of either of the knife-marks or of 
the gauge-marks. 

To remove, fro7n A and B, in turn, the wood between the 
saw-cut and the plane of the three gauge-marks. — First 
method. Place each stick, in turn, on one side, upon a 
board on the bench, and fasten it with a wooden hand-screw. 
With a paring-chisel, that is wider than the cut to be made, 
split or pare off several chips, parallel to the grain. Incline 
the chisel, so that the chips shall grow thinner as the tool 
cuts deeper. Incline it so much that the chips shall not 
split beneath the plane of the three gauge-marks. Let the 
last cut coincide with the upper gauge-mark. Turn the other 
side of the stick uppermost and repeat the operation. This 
will leave a ridge, running lengthwise of the stick. Its lower 
lines will coincide with two of the gauge-marks. With the 
wide chisel, pare away the outer end of the ridge. Let the 
last cut coincide with the gauge-mark at the end. Turn 
the stick half-way over, bringing the ridge uppermost, and 
fasten it again with the hand-screw. With a narrow paring- 



So WOOD-WORICING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

chisel, bevel away the inner end of the ridge to terminate in 
a straight line joining the corners where the knife-marks and 
the gauge-marks meet. Split away, with the chisel, nearly 
all of the pyramidal ridge remaining. Pare off the rest, and, 
occasionally, test the surface produced, with a straight edge 
of the chisel. 

To remove, from A and B, in turn, the wood between the 
saw-cut and the plane of the thi'ee gauge-marks. — Second 
method. Place each stick, in turn, upright in the vise. With 
a sharp, medium-fine-toothed ripping-saw, cut along the 
gauge-marks, nearly to the cut made by the back-saw. 
Finally, pare the surfaces, as when using the first method, or, 
pare the wider surface, with a small plane that is made for 
the purpose. 

To remove, from A and B, in turn, the wood between the 
saw-cut and the plane of the three gauge-marks. — Third 
method. Place each stick, in turn, upright in the vise. With 
a sharp, fine-toothed ripping-saw, cut, very accurately, close 
to the gauge-marks, nearly to the cut made by the back-saw. 
Take care not to cii,t away any portion of the gauge-marks, 
and not to saw beyond the knife-marks. Square out the 
corner with a narrow paring-chisel. 

When both sticks have been treated by either method, as 
has been directed, they will fit together as shown in Fig. 
XIII, a. 

Mortising. 

Ex. XIII, 2. — To make an open, mortise-and-tenon joint. 
(See Fig. XIII, b?) Select, and mark with an X, each of 
the flush surfaces. Mark that stick which is to contain the 
mortise, A, and the other, B. 

To line out the work. Mark the length of the mortise in 
A, by laying the try-square, and B, upon it. (See Ex. XIII, 
I.) Mark a point, in each edge of the top of A, at the 



JOINERY. 



Si 



edge of the blade of the square, with a sharp knife. Rest 
the beam of the square upon the top of A, and, with the 
edge of the blade at each of the points, in turn, makey?;?^ 
knife-marks, on the sides of A, where the end of the mortise 
will be. These knife-marks should not extend entirely across 
the sides of A, but they should be a little longer than the 
thickness of the mortise. Obtain the length of the tenon 
of B, by laying the try-square, and A, upon it. Line across 
the top of B with a sharp knife. Rest the beam of the 




Fig. -XIII, h. 

AN OPEN MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT. 



square upon the top of B, and carry lines down both sides 
through the ends of the line upon the topi Join the lower 
ends of these lines, by a straight knife-mark across the 
bottom, thus lining entirely around the stick. Set the spur 
of the gauge at a distance from the head of the gauge equal 
to about one-tJiird of the thickness of either piece. Rest 
the head of the gauge upon the top of both pieces, in turn, 
and gauge along the sides, as far as the cross-lines previously 
drawn. Gauge, also, across the flush ends of both pieces. 



82 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 

Then set the spur at a distance from the head equal to about 
two-thv'ds of the thickness of either piece, and gauge along 
the sides and across the ends, of both pieces, near the other 
gauge-lines. 

To remove the siipei^fluous wood from the tenon. Notice 
that the shape of that part of the stick, which is to be re- 
moved from either side of the tenon, is like that which was 
removed from the sticks that were halved together in Ex. 
XIII, I. Remove, then, the superfluous wood, by either 
method of that exercise. 

To remove the chief part of the superfluous wood from the 
mo7^tise. — First method. Place A upon a board, upon the 
bench, with one of its sides uppermost, and fasten it there 
with a wooden hand-screw. Take a mortising-chisel which 
is, about an eighth of an inch, narrower than the thickness 
of the mortise. Rest its cutting-edge upon the wood to be 
removed, at about a quarter of an inch from the flush end, 
and with its centre upon the centre of the thickness of the 
mortise. Hold the straight face of the chisel upright, and 
next to the flush end. Take care not to tip the chisel sidewise. 
Drive the chisel in with a mallet. The bevelled side of the 
chisel will cause the chisel and the chips to work out through 
the open end of the mortise. Take each succeeding cut 
nearer to the blind end of the mortise, the last one beginning 
at about one-eighth of an inch from that end. Do 7iot cut 
closer to the blind end than one-eighth of an inch. Turn the 
stick the other side over. Fasten it, again, with the hand- 
screw. Cut, as before, from the side now uppermost, begin- 
ning the last cut from this side at about one-eighth of an inch 
from the blind end. Next, turn the chisel around so that the 
bevelled face is next to the flush end. Hold the chisel verti- 
cal and trim nearly to the end of the mortise. 

To reniove the chief part of the superfluoiis wood from the 
mortise. — • Second method. Place the stick upright in the 



JOINERY. 83 

vise, and, with a medium-fine -toothed saw, saw just within 
the gauge-marks, on both sides, nearly to the bhnd end of 
the mortise. Take care ?iot to i^emove any part of the gauge- 
marks or of the knife-marks, with the saw. — Witli a sharp, 
narrow mortising-chiset, remove the wood that is between 
the saw- cuts. 

To remove the chief part of the superfluous wood from the 
mortise. — Third method. ' With a bit, of a diameter that is 
a htde less than the thickness of the mortise, bore a number 
of holes, in regular succession, entirely through the mortise, 
as in Ex. XII, 2, or Ex. XII, 3. Begin near the open end 
of the mortise. 

To reinove the chief part of the stpejfluous wood from the 
mortise. — Fourth method. With a bit, of a diameter that is 
a little less than the thickness of the mortise, bore a single 
hole, entirely through the mortise, near its bhnd end. Make 
two saw-cuts, as in the second method. 

To finish the mortise, having removed the chief part of the 
supeifitwus wood, by either one of the four methods. With a 
paring-chisel, of the same width as the mortising-chisel, 
square out the blind etid and bevel the sides to terminate 
in a straight line joining the corners where the knife-marks 
and the gauge-marks meet. Then, with a wide paring-chisel, 
bevel the sides and the outer edge of the mortise until the 
bevels terminate in the gauge-marks. Then split and pare, to 
the planes of the gauge-marks, as in Ex. XIII, i. 

To remove the superfluous wood from the mortise. — Fifth 
method. Place the stick, upright, in the vise, and, with a 
sharp, fine -toothed back-saw, saw, very accurately, close to the 
gauge-marks, just within them, on both sides of the mortise, 
and near to its blind end. Take care not to reniove any 
part, of the gaitge-marks, or of the knife-marks. With a sharp, 
narrow mortising-chisel, remove the chief part of the wood 
that is between the saw-cuts. With a sharp, narrow paring- 



84 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 



chisel, that is a little narrower than the thickness of the mor- 
tise, square out the blind end of the mortise, to the lines. 

Ex. XIII, 3. — To make an open, double, mortise-and-ienon 
joint. (See Fig. XIII, c) Make the thickness of each 
mortise and tenon about one-fifth of the thickness of the 
sticks. Proceed otherwise, as in Ex. XIII, 2. , 




Fig. XIII, c. 

AN OPEN, DOUBLE, MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT. 

Ex. XIII, 4. — To make a 7nortise-and-tenon joint. (See 
Fig. XIII, d.) Select, and mark with an X, each of the flush 
surfaces. Mark the stick that is to contain the mortise. A, 
and the other, B. 

To line out the work. — Lay the stick. A, upon the bench, 
with its top uppermost. Place the blade of the try-square 
upon the top of A, in such position that its edge shall be 
directly over the intended position of one end of the mortise. 
With a sharp knife, mark a point in each edge of the top, at 
the edge of the blade. Without changing the position of the 



JOINERY. 



8s 



edge of the blade, rest B upon A, with its top uppermost, 
vvith its flush end flush with the flush side of A, and with one 
of its lower edges touching the edge of the blade. Mark a 
point, in each edge of the top of A, at the lower edge of B, 
and over the intended position of the other end of the mor- 




Fig. XIII, d. 

A MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT. 

tise. Square down from each of the four marked points, in 
the top of A, and make four knife-marks, of the proper length, 
upon the sides of A, where the ends of the mortise will come. 
Find the length of the tenon of B, and line entirely around, 
at the inner end of the tenon, as in Ex. XIII, 2. Gauge the 
sides of the mortise and tenon, as in Ex. XIII, 2. 

To remove the chief part of the siiperftuons wood from the 
mortise. — First method. Bore a number of holes, entirely 
through the block, in regular succession, as in Ex. XII, 2, or 
a^ in Ex. XII, 3. 



86 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 

To remove the chief part of the superfluous wood from the 
mortise. — Second method. With a sharp, mortising-chisel, 
that is a little narrower than the end of the mortise, cut deep 
and across the grain, at about one-eighth of an inch from 
one end of the mortise. Hold the chisel upright, and with 
its straight face toward the neat-er end of the mortise. On 
withdrawing the chisel a gap is left in the wood, as in Ex. 
Ill, 4. Carry the chisel a short distance toward the farther 
end of the mortise, and cut again into the wood. The bev- 
elled edge of the tool will cause both the tool and the chip 
to work out into the gap. Repeat this process until the gap 
has been sufficiently enlarged. Then turn the piece the 
other side up, and meet the first gap by a similar one from 
the other side. Next, proceed to finish the mortise, as in 
Ex. XIII, 2. 

To remove the superfluous part of the wood from the mor- 
tise. — Third method. Bore one hole entirely through the 
wood and near the end of the mortise. Pass a narrow saw- 
blade, (such as a gig, fret, or key-hole saw-blade,) through 
the hole, and saw out the superfluous wood along both sides, 
and across the further end, of the ■ mortise. Whichever 
method is used to remove the chief part of the wood, finish 
with two paring chisels. One should be a little narrower 
than the sides, and the other a little narrower than the ends, 
of the mortise. First, with the narrower chisel of the two, 
square out the ends of the mortise^ to the knife-marks, and 
bevel the sides, to terminate in straight lines joining the cor- 
ners of the ends. Then, with the wider chisel, bevel the 
sides, to the gauge-marks. Finally, split away the ridge and 
pare to the plane of the gauge -marks, with the wider chisel ; 
testing the accuracy of the work with a straight edge of the 
chisel. 



JOINERY. 



87 



Ex. XIII, 5. — To make a bli?id, mortise-and-tenon joint. 
(See Fig. XIII, e.) 




Fig. XIII, e. 

A BLIND MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT 



WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. 



HOW TO USE THEM. 



Ex. XIII, 6. — To make a blind, mortise-and-tenon joint, 
at the end of a brace. (See Fig. XIII, /.) 




Fig. XIII, / 

A BLIND MORTISE-AND-TENON JOINT, AT THE END OF A BRACE. 



Mitreing. 

Ex. XIII, 7. — To make a mitre joint, without the aid of 
% mitre-box. (See Fig. XIII, ^.) Mark one stick A and 
the other B. Select, and mark with an X^ each of the flush 
sides. 



JOINERY. 



89 



To line out the work. Make a knife- mark, in the upper 
edge of the ifiner side of A, at a distahce from its flush end 
equal to the exact width of B. Extend this knife-mark, 
square across the inner side of A, to its lower edge. Witli the 
edge of the try-square blade, and the knife, make straight 
marks running diagonally across the top and bottom of the 
stick, and joining the top and bottom of the knife-mark on 




Fig. XIII, ^. 

A MITRE JOINT. 



its inner side, with the top and bottom of the flush end 
of its flush side. Mark similar lines on B, by a similar 
process. 

To remove the superfluous wood. — First method. Witn 
a sharp, mediumflne-toothed back-saw, saw nearly to the 
lines ; then, with a chisel or a plane, pare to the line. 



90 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 

To remove the superfluous wood. — Second method. With 
a sharps fine-toothed back- saw, saw to the lines on A and B. 
The pieces will fit together. 

Ex. XIII, 8. — To make a mitre-box. 

Ex. XIII, 9. — To make a mitre joint with the aid of a 
mitre-box. (See Fig. XIII, g.) Select, and mark with an 
X, each of the flush surfaces. Without hning out the work, 
place each piece, in turn, in the mitre -box, in such a position 
that the diagonal saw-cut, when made, will not shorten the 
flush side of the stick, but will coincide with the flush end of 
that side. For exact work, use a sharp, fine-toothed back- 
saw. If the diagonal kerf of the mitre-box is accurately 
placed, and if both of the sticks are of the same width, the 
sticks will fit together as intended. 

There is a metallic substitute for the wooden mitre-box, 
that is much more accurate and convenient for use. It is 
used in the same manner as the wooden box. 

Ex. XIII, 10. — To make a mitre joint by the aid of a 
bevel-square. 

Ex. XIII, II. — To make a mitre joint with an open, mor- 
tise-and- tenon. (See Fig. XIII, h.) Mark the stick that 
is to contain the mortise. A, and the other, B. Select and 
■mark each of the flush surfaces. 

To line out the work. Line out the mitre, as in Ex. 
XIII, 7. Line out the open mortise and tenon, as in Ex. 
XIII, 2, except that the only marks to be made upon B,for 
the tenon, are those on its inside and on its flush end. 

To remove the superfluous wood from the mortise, use 
either of the methods of Ex. XIII, 2. 

To remove the superfluous wood from the tenon. With a 
sharp, fine-toothed back-saw, saw, close to the diagonal lines, 
along the knife-marks on the inner side, and, along the edge 
where the flush end meets the flush side, nearly to the tenon. 
Then proceed by either method of Ex. XIII, 2. 



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91 




Fig. XIII, h. 

A MITRE JOINT, WITH AN OPEN MORTISE-AND-TENON. 




Fig. XIII, i. 

K MITRE JOINT WITH AN OPEN DOUBLE MORTISE-AND-TENON. 



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WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 



Ex. XIII, 12. — To make a miti-e joint with an open, 
double mortise-and-tenon. (See Fig. XIII, /.) Proceed 
partly as in Ex. XIII, 3, and pardy as in Ex. XIII, 9, lo^ 
or II. 

Ex. XIII, 13. — To make a 7nitre Joint, to be fastened 
with glued tongues. (See Fig. XIII, /) 




Fig. XIII, / 

A MITRE JOINT, FASTENED BY GLUED TONGUES. 



JOINERY. 93 



Dowelling. 

Ex. XIII, 14. — To fnake a dowel joint. (See Fig. 
XIII, k.) 

Ex. XIII, 15. — To make a half-blind, dowel Joint. (See 
Fig. XIII, /.) Mark the best piece. A, and the other, B. 
Select and mark the flush surfaces. Line across the inner, 
wide surface of A, at a distance from the end equal to the 
thickness of B, and, with the try-square and knife, continue 
the line across the edge -faces. Gauge across the end of A, 
at one-fourth of its thickness from its flush face, and con- 
tinue the lines, along the narrow sides, as far as the first lines 
drawn. Remove the parts thus marked out, and hold the 
end of B, firmly, in the rebate thus formed, using the vise to 
keep it in position. With a quarter-inch bit, if seven-eighths 
inch board is used, bore three holes, through the end of B, 
extending about one inch into the end of A, and located as 
shown in Fig. XIII, /. Into these holes drive tightly-fitting 
dowel-pins. These pins, if glued in place, will firmly unite 
the two pieces. 

Ex. XIII, 16. — To viake a blind, dowel joint. (See Fig. 
XIII, m:) 

Ex. XIII, 17. — To make a blind, dowel joint, with a 
mitre. (See Fig. XIII, ;;.) 

Ex. XIII, 18. — To make a blind, dowel joint, with a post. 
(See Fig. XIII, o.) 



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WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 




X 



Q 

►J 
.< 




^ o 



X! w 



JOINERY. 



95 




X - 




g6 WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 





Fig. XIII, 0. 

A BLIND DOWEL JOINT, WITH A POST, 



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97 



Dovetailing. 

Ex. XIII, 19. — To make a half- dovetail joint, halved- 
together. (See Fig. XIII, /.) 

Ex. XIII, 20. — To make a half -dovetail joint, halved 
together at a corner. (See Fig. XIII, ^.) 

Ex. XIII, 21. — To make a dovetail joint with a single 
tongue. (See Fig. XIII, r.) 




Fig. XIII, p. 

A HALF-DOVETAIL JOINT, HALVED TOGETHER. 

Ex. XIII, 2 2. — To make a dovetail joint with several 
tongues. (See Fig. XIII, s.) 

Ex. XIII, 23. — To make a half-blind dovetail joifit. (See 
Fig. XIII, /.) 

Ex. XIII, 24. — To make a dovetail joint with a mitre 
(See Fig. XIII, u.) 



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WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. HOW TO USE THEM. 



Ex. XIII, 25. — To make a blind dovetail joint 
(See Fig. XIII, v.) 




Fig. XIII, q. 

A HALF-DOVETAIL JOINT, HALVED TOGETHER AT A CORNER. 




Fig. XIII, r. 

A DOVETAIL JOINT WITH A SINGLE TONGUE. 



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99 





lOO WOOD-WORKING TOOLS. — HOW TO USE THEM. 





JOINERY. lOI 



Pinning. 

Ex. XIII, 26. — To fasten the parts of an open moi'tise- 
and-tenon joint with a wooden pin. 

Wedging. 

Ex. XIII, 27. — To fasten the parts of a mortise-and- 
tenon joint with wooden wedges. 

Gluing. 

Ex. XIII, 28. — To fasten the parts of a halved-together 
joint with hot glue. 

Nailing. 
Ex. XIII, 29. — To fasten the parts of a box with nails. 

Joining with Screws. 
Ex. XIII, 30. — To fasten the parts of a box with screws. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

FINISHING. 

Exercise XIV, i . — To finish with sand-paper when the 
wood is to be painted, 

Ex. XIV, 2 . — To finish with sand-paper when the wood 
is not to be painted, but varnished. 

Ex. XIV, 3. — To cleanse the sand-papered surface, if it 
becomes accidentally soiled. 

Pattern-makers, wood- turners, and some other workers in 
wood, use still other finishing processes, the nature of which 
will be apparent from Ex. XIV, 4-6. 

Ex. XIV, 4. — To raise the grain. 

Ex. XIV, ^. — To fill the grain. 

Ex. XIV, 6. — To finish with oil, shellac, and alcohol. 

Persons who put on inside finish in houses, cabinet-makers 
and most workers in wood, leave such processes as are used 
in the last three exercises for painters to perform. 



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